Introduction

The study of inequality is an important subject in developing countries. The issue has different dimensions namely income inequality, wage inequality, wealth inequality, education inequality, inequality in opportunities etc. Each inequality has different characteristics and causes to study in-depth manner. The existence of economic inequality is unfavourable to poor people. For example, the existence of lower-income of poor people due to inequality affects their children’s educational attainment (1). Educational inequality is a challenging question in the modern developing world. The educational institutions are the gatekeeper of a system through which students make themselves eligible for better income opportunities. The institution provides equal opportunities to all the students to develop their intellectual power to engage in society. The person with a high educational level may have high-income opportunities in society (2). The expansion of education may lead to the reduction of educational inequality. The expansion of education reduces the educational inequality in Taiwan. The development of education improves the formation of human capital in the country. It increased the well-being of the people in Taiwan (3).

The evolution of education leads to improvement of educational enrolment rate as well as years of schooling completed. However, the evolution from a low level of education to a higher level increases the international educational inequality. But such inequality declined during the later period (4). Again, one of the study observed the declining pattern of socio-economic inequalities in educational achievement as the level of education increased for the population of Canada (5). Similarly, the development of education is very important for developing countries like India. Since independence, access to education is one of the primary factors of inequality and economic development in India. The distribution of education leads to regional imbalances in the country. A person who possesses a higher level of education results in an access to a job in the modern sector (6). However, there is a strong relationship between parental education and the educational results of their children in the twentieth century (7). There have some other factors such as state policies, socio-economic status of the family which determine the educational attainment of the children in the country especially in developing countries (8).

The development of an economy is significantly related to educational development. The higher amount of investment in educational resources leads to the accumulation of human capital. It improves the educational attainment or average years of schooling in the country. The development positively influences economic growth. A study on the economy of Taiwan supported such an aspect (9). Therefore, education is a powerful instrument of the economic drive. However, some of the research found the opposite relationship between human capital formation and economic growth (10, 11). Again, the relationship between educational inequality and average years of educational level may differ in different countries. The relationship between the variables may show curvilinear types relation (12). The unequal distribution of education across the gender is harmful to economic growth. It directly hampers economic growth by decreasing the average level of human capital in developing countries. It indirectly hampers economic growth through population growth (13).

One study investigated the impact of gender inequality in education on income. The study observed that a low degree of female-male enrolment ratio significantly correlated with the lower per capita GDP, in addition to the influence of female education on the per capita GDP (14). Again, one of the other research projects studied the influence of gender inequality in education on the per capita GDP by applying the Solow model. The study considered the education of males and females as the distinct inputs of production. The discussion shows that per capita GDP is significantly reduced by gender inequality in education (15). Similarly, some research shows that gender inequality in education significantly contributed to the high level of fertility and mortality (16, 17, 18). These studies observed the negative impact of the high levels of fertility and growth of the population on economic growth. Gender inequality in education indicates an indirect link between economic growth and gender bias in education.

One study analysed the relationship between earnings on fertility or gender inequality and economic growth. The economic growth contracts the gender gap in incomes, reduced fertility and improved economic growth. In other words, less developed countries characterized by the high magnitude of gender gap in incomes, faced the problem of high fertility rate and low economic growth. It leads to the continuous widening of the gender gap in earnings which leads to a poverty trap (19). However, some researchers studied the impact of gender inequality in education on growth. The estimation of growth regression which incorporates both male and female years of schooling shows the negative relationship between the growth and female primary and secondary education. It indicates the existence of a higher gap between male and female schooling which shows backwardness and may be related to the low level of economic growth (20). But one study observed the opposite results (21). The study argued that such findings may be due to the amalgamation of low growth with the high magnitude of female education in the country of Latin America. The study observed a positive correlation between female secondary education and growth while a negative correlation between male secondary education and growth.

Many researchers studied the distribution of education from a different perspective in. One of the researchers studied the distribution of education among males and females in India in 1971. The study observed that male persons are more accessible to education than female persons. It was observed in both rural and urban areas in India (22). Again, there is a difference in the distribution of education between the Dalit and non-Dalit categories in India during the period 1961 to 2001. The literacy rates among non SC/ST category people are higher than SC category people during the period. The literacy rate was higher among male persons as compared to female persons in both categories (23). Again, the distribution of education was higher among upper-caste Hindus than in Dalit, Adivasi and Muslim categories in most of the regions of India during 1999-2000. The educational gap between the categories decreases at the primary level in India. However, the percentage of educated youth under the age of 24-29 increased among all the categories in India from 1983 to 1999-2000. The male youth aged 24-29 is more educated than female youth aged 24-29 among all the categories in India (24). Similarly, research on the accessibility of education to women observed that the women’s movement to access the benefits of education improved the status of accessibility to education among the women population in India (25, 26).

Therefore, the present paper selected the area since there is a research gap on the present aspect. The Southern region of India previously consists of four states Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The present paper excluded Telangana and the union territory from the study. The paper consists of four sections. After the brief introduction, the methodology of the paper has been discussed in section II. The paper applied the Gini coefficient to investigate the inequality in the education sector. Then the paper moves to section III which included the results and a discussion of the research. Finally, the paper concluded in section IV. In this section, the paper also suggested some policy implications for the development of society.

Research Methodology:

The present paper studied the inequality in the education sector in South India. The study applied a familiar method of estimating inequality known as the Gini Coefficient. The technique is used to estimate the education inequality in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu. The state of Kerala is famous for the literacy rate all over India which indicates the development of the education sector. Similarly, Karnataka is famous for its rapid urbanization. Therefore, the primary objective of estimating education inequality in such states is to observe the distribution of education among the working population.

The research applied the following technique to estimate the educational inequality –

Education Inequality I_E:

I_E=(1/μ)[X₂ (Y₂-Y₁)X₁+
X₃ (Y₃-Y₁)X₁+X₃ (Y₃-Y₂)X₂+
X₄ (Y₄-Y₁)X₁+X₄ (Y₄-Y₂)X₂+X₄ (Y₄-Y₃)X₃+
X₅ (Y₅-Y₁)X₁+X₅ (Y₅-Y₂)X₂+X₅ (Y₅-Y₃)X₃+X₅ (Y₅-Y₄)X₄+
X₆ (Y₆-Y₁)X₁+X₆ (Y₆-Y₂)X₂+X₆ (Y₆-Y₃)X₃+X₆ (Y₆-Y₄)X₄+X₆ (Y₆-Y₅)X₅+
X₇ (Y₇-Y₁)X₁+X₇ (Y₇-Y₂)X₂+X₇ (Y₇-Y₃)X₃+X₇ (Y₇-Y₄)X₄+X₇ (Y₇-Y₅)X₅+X₇ (Y₇-Y₆)X₆]

X₁=The share of illiterate people; X₂=The share of pre-primary completed people; X₃=The share of primary schooling completed people; X₄=The share of middle schooling completed people; X₅=The share of matriculation completed people; X₆=The share of senior secondary completed people; X₇=The share of graduation completed people; Y₁=Years of schooling for illiterate; Y₂=Years of schooling for pre-primary level; Y₃=Years of schooling for primary school level; Y₄=Years of schooling for middle school level; Y₅= Years of schooling for secondary school level; Y₆=Years of schooling for senior secondary level; Y₇=Years of schooling for graduation level.

The paper follows the following technique to choose the years of schooling for estimating the Gini coefficient.

Illiterate = 0; Pre-Primary =Y₁+ ½Z₀= ½Z₀; Primary = Y₂+ ½Z₀=Z₀; Middle School = Z₀+3; Secondary School = Z₁; Senior Secondary = Z₂; Graduation = Z₂+3

Where, Z₀= Period of primary education, i.e., 4; Z₁= Period of secondary education i.e., 10; Z₂= Period of senior secondary education i.e., 12.

The research applied regression to estimate the average annual growth rate of the per capita NSDP in the southern region of India from 1991 to 2019. Similarly, regression is applied between the educational inequality and per capita NSDP in each state of South India. However, the study faced a lack of census data of India from 2012. But the study estimated the data for all the states during the period 2012 to 2019 based on state-specific compound growth rates between 2001 to 2011. Similarly, Telangana formed as a separate state from the state of Andhra Pradesh in 2014. Prior to it, the area of Telangana was included under the state of Andhra Pradesh. Therefore, the results of Andhra Pradesh included the state of Telangana from 2014. It has been considered for the convenience of the comparative analysis. Again, the period of completion of primary education is assumed as class IV for all the states to compare the education inequality among all the states during the study period.

The key objectives of the paper are to investigate the following:

1. Educational inequality in the southern region of India.
2. Impact of education on mortality in the southern region of India.

Results and Discussion:

The education inequality declined in South India during the period 1991 to 2019. The study observed that education inequality is highest in Andhra Pradesh in 1991. The state of Kerala shows the lowest education inequality since 1991. It implies the development of the education sector in Kerala. In other words, the distribution of education facilities is more equal in Kerala than the other states of south India. The inequality tends to be reduced in all the states of the region. Unfortunately, educational inequality is highest in Andhra Pradesh than the rest of the states in 2019. However, the rate of reduction of educational inequality is highest in Tamil Nadu and lowest in Kerala. The rate of reduction of inequality is 46.84 % in Tamil Nadu, 39.15 % in Karnataka, 37.24 % in Andhra Pradesh and 29.13 % in Kerala from 1991 to 2019.

The following Table 1 shows the results of education inequality in the both the rural and urban areas of South India during the period 1991 to 2019. The results show that rural education inequality is highest in Andhra Pradesh and lowest in Kerala in 1991. The results of the state of Kerala implies the proper distribution of educational benefits among the rural people in the state. Kerala achieved the lowest while Andhra Pradesh possesses the highest position in education inequality in 2019. However, all the states succeeded to reduce the education inequality during the period. It implies the accessibility of the educational benefits of the sector in the rural areas of these states. The research observed that the rate of reduction of rural education inequality is highest in the state of Tamil Nadu.

The Table 1 also shows the education inequality in the urban areas of South India during the period 1991 to 2019. The research observed that urban educational inequality is highest in Andhra Pradesh and lowest in Kerala in 1991. However, inequality declined in each state of the region during the period. Unfortunately, Andhra Pradesh still shows the highest educational inequality as compared to the other states in 2019. One of the key observations is that educational inequality is lower in the urban areas as compared to the rural areas in each state of the region during the period. It is because of the higher development of the education sector in the urban areas as compared to rural areas. The rate of reduction of urban educational inequality is highest in Tamil Nadu and lowest in Kerala. The rate of reduction of urban educational inequality is 39.66 per cent in Tamil Nadu, 32.74 per cent in Karnataka, 30.61 per cent in Andhra Pradesh and 21.45 per cent in Kerala from 1991 to 2019. Such reduction in educational inequality shows the development of the education sector in the region. In other words, it implies a more equal distribution of the educational benefits among the population in the region.

The study observed the increasing pattern of the standard deviation of schooling in all the states of South India during the period 1991 to 2019. The pattern is different in the rural areas as compared to the urban areas. The pattern tends to increase more in the rural areas than the urban areas. The standard deviation of schooling for the rural areas is lowest in Andhra Pradesh and highest in Tamil Nadu in 1991. But it’s highest in Andhra Pradesh and lowest in Kerala in 2019. However, the standard deviation of schooling for urban areas is highest in Andhra Pradesh and lowest in Kerala during the period 1991 to 2019. As the estimation considered the standard deviation of schooling for the entire state, Andhra Pradesh shows the second-lowest position after Kerala in 1991 and occupied the topmost place in 2019.

The average years of schooling is one of the important factors of reduction of education inequality. The research observed that the average years of schooling above the age of 15 years is highest in Kerala during the period 1991 to 2019. The state of Tamil Nadu shows significant improvement in the average years of schooling. Again, Andhra Pradesh occupied the lowest place in the order. However, all the states succeeded to increases the average years of schooling above the age of 15 years during the period. The trend of average years of schooling above 15 years in the rural areas of South India shows almost the same results as the results of the overall state. However, such a trend varies in the case of urban areas of South India. The average years of schooling above 15 years is highest in Kerala while Tamil Nadu shows second-lowest in 1991. But Tamil Nadu surpassed Kerala and shows better performance in urban areas in 2019. Though the state of Andhra Pradesh shows some better performance than Tamil Nadu from 1998 to 2006, the state still occupied the lowest place in 2019. However, overall, all the states show improvement during the period.

The study observed the negative relationship between the average years of schooling and education inequality. The distribution of educational benefits among the population is significantly related to the average years of schooling. The increase in average years of schooling reduces the educational inequality in the region. The study observed such a negative relationship in each state of South India from 1991 to 2019. The development of the education sector leads to the extension of average of years of schooling and contributed to the reduction of education inequality in Kerala.

However, the degree of relationship differs across the state. For example, the relationship between the average years of schooling and educational inequality is different in Kerala than in any other states. The study found a concave curve type relationship in Kerala. It implies that Kerala requires to increase in average years of schooling at a lower rate as compared to the other states in both rural and urban areas of the state to reduce the education inequality. It is because Kerala already achieved significant development in the education sector. The convex curve shows the opposite meaning. The states Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu shows a convex curve in the rural areas.

The government of the state of Andhra Pradesh requires large expansion of the education sector as compared to Kerala to reduce the education inequality in the Andhra Pradesh. The development of the education sector may increase the accessibility of educational benefits in Andhra Pradesh. The improvement of the educational qualification leads to the reduction of education inequality. It other words, it implies the more equal distribution of education resources among the people in the state. The state of Kerala achieved significant development in the education sector and leads to highest improvement in the reduction of education inequality as compared to the other states (Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu) in the southern region of India since 1991 to 2019.

The study observed that the states characterized by higher average years of schooling achieved a more equitable distribution of education as compared to the states characterized by lower average years of schooling. For example, Kerala has higher average years of schooling than any other state which leads the state to achieve the lowest educational inequality in 1991. Similarly, the state of Kerala continuously succeeded to reduce educational inequality due to the increases in average years of schooling which implies the existence of more equitable distribution of education in the state than in any other state. However, Andhra Pradesh shows the opposite results during the period.

Educational Kuznets Curve in South India:

Figure 1: Educational Lorenz Curve in South India Source: Own Calculation using Census Data of India.

The present study investigated whether the distribution of education worsens before it improves. To answer the question, the study estimated the Kuznets curve for the region. The results highlight that some of the states have the pattern of the Kuznets curve. In case of the overall state, Kerala and Tamil Nadu shows the pattern.

However, the state of Kerala shows such a Kuznets type curve in rural areas. The state of Tamil Nadu is also inclined to show such a pattern. Again, the states Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu shows the pattern of the Kuznets curve in urban areas. The pattern of the Kuznets curve implies that as the state shifted from the minimum say 0 to the highest education level, at first variance increases while it declines during the later period. However, such a Kuznets curve was never found while considering education Gini instead of the standard deviation of schooling.

The Relationship between Per Capita NSDP and Education Gini in South India:

The study observed that all the states of the southern region of India has a significant growth in the per capita NSDP since 1991 to 2019. The state of Andhra Pradesh has the highest growth in the per capita NSDP in the region. The following Table 2 shows the results.

The expansion of education sector facilitated to access the benefits of education among the people in the society. The accessibility to education improved the educational qualification of the people. The improvement in the educational qualification expanded the income sources to the people. It contributed to the improvement of the economic well-being of people.

The study observed the negative relationship between the per capita NSDP and education Gini in the states of South India from 1991 to 2019. The education Gini is the independent variable and per capita NSDP is the dependent variable. It implies that as educational inequality reduces in the state, it leads to an increase in per capita NSDP in the state. Therefore, equal distribution of education is important to grow the per capita NSDP in all the states of the region.

Role of Education on Health:

The following Table 4 shows the number of colleges in each state of the region.

Education is one of the important factors for better health status. The improvement of education qualification helps to reduce the mortality rate of children. The expansion of health is important to access such goal. The study observed that medical colleges are increased in each state of the region. It extended the admission capacity of the students to study different types of medical courses in the region since availability of doctors is important to reduce the mortality rate of children. The availability or engagement of doctors or men-powers depends on the availability of colleges to study medical courses.

The following Table 5 shows the engagement of men-power in the health sector in each state of the region since 1991 to 2019.

The employment of men-power increased in the health sector of each state of the region. An increase in engagement of men-power increased the availability of men-power per thousand population. It helped to reduce the mortality rate in the region. The government provides employment opportunities to several people to reduce the mortality rate. The study observed that employment of auxiliary nurse midwives significantly increased in each state of the region. The engagement of auxiliary midwives is vital for the society since they were the first contact person or primary health worker to deal with maternal and child health related issue specially in the village areas. They played a major role in the health department. Similarly, lady health visitors increased in each state of the region since 1991. It is important to employ lady doctor to reduce the mortality rate in the region.

The study observed that the mortality rate of age group 0 – 4 was decreased in each state of the region. It was decreased from 21.3 in 1991 to 8.3 in 2019 in Andhra Pradesh. However, it was 22.2 in 1991 and reduced to 9.3 in 2019 in the rural areas of Andhra Pradesh. Similarly, it reduced from 21.4 in 1991 to 6 in 2019 in Karnataka while 24.6 in 1991 to 6.6 in 2019 in the rural areas of Karnataka. Again, it reduced from 4.3 in 1991 to 1.8 in 2019 in Kerala. The rural areas of Kerala show higher improvement as compared to other states. The rural areas of Kerala reduction of mortality rate from 4.3 in 1991 to 1.9 in 2019. Tamil Nadu succeeded to reduce mortality rate from 16.1 in 1991 to 3.8 in 2019. It was 18.4 in 1991 and reduced to 4.3 in 2019 in the rural areas of Tamil Nadu. The study observed that Kerala has low mortality rate among all the states in the region during the period 1991 to 2019. The following Table 6 shows the child mortality rate under the age group 0 – 4 per thousand population in each state of the region since 1991.

The role education is important for the improvement of health condition. The expansion of education qualification increased the education of people. It helped to take care of their children for better health. It may lead to reduction of child mortality rate in the region.

The study observed an inverse relationship between the child mortality rate and education Gini in each state of the region. It was highest in the state of Karnataka. The expansion of education sector improved the education qualification of the people and it leads to the reduction of child mortality rate in Karnataka. Similarly, the study observed that expansion of education sector leads to the reduction of child mortality rate in each state of the region. It is because of improvement of education qualification educated the people and educated people cared their child better as compared to uneducated people. Since the government significantly increased the employment in the health workers, it also helped to reduce the child mortality rate in the region. They helped to train the people how to take care their child. The trained people lead cared their child better and contributed to the reduction of mortality rate. Therefore, the study observed that education played the key role in the reduction of child mortality rate in the region.

Conclusion:

The study observed different rates of educational inequality in the states of South India from 1991 to 2019. The educational inequality is highest in Andhra Pradesh and lowest in Kerala in both the rural and urban areas. The results confirmed the inclining pattern of the standard deviation of schooling in all the states of South India. The pattern tends to increase more in the rural areas than the urban areas. The distribution of educational benefits among the population is significantly related to the average years of schooling. The increase in average years of schooling reduces the educational inequality in the region. The average years of schooling above the age of 15 is highest in the state of Kerala. The state of Tamil Nadu shows significant improvement in the increases in average years of schooling. The state of Kerala shows the Kuznets curve between the standard deviation of schooling and average years of schooling in rural areas. The present study observed the negative relationship between the per capita NSDP and education Gini in the states of South India. The state of Andhra Pradesh requires to extend the education sector to access the educational benefits by the people in the state. The expansion of education sector leads to reduction of child mortality rate in each state of the region.

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